The Legacy of Ancient Rome

Throughout the life of Rome, from its humble beginnings as a small town into a behemoth of a military superpower, a variety of factors played key roles in its sustainability. While much of the anicent world has been lost to time, we can still find artifacts today that point to significant events of the past. Three artifacts that represent the great legacy of ancient Rome include the Twelve Tables for revolutionizing Roman law; the Tusculum portrait, which depicts Julius Caesar, who turned the Republic into the Empire; and the famous Colosseum for its architectural prowess and representation of life and entertainment.

Decades into the Roman Republic, in the middle of the fifth century BCE, ten men were assigned the task of composing a list of laws for both the upper (patrician) class, and the lower (plebian) social class to abide by. After refining the subsequently written laws, they were inscribed on bronze tablets and consolidated into a stone structure called the Twelve Tables.(1) This artifact not only serves as the earliest attempt at creating a code of law, but also remains as the oldest piece of writing recorded from the ancient Roman civilization. The Twelve Tables outline laws that defined Roman life at the time, and onwards into the empire, containing sections explaining court procedure, debt, family, inheritance, possession and property, torts, public law, sacred law and any relevant supplementary law.(2)

Roman citizens examining the Twelve Tables

While the laws are fairly archaic (as must be expected for ancient society), they demonstrate the independence of Rome at this point in its history, and draws heavily off of influences such as the Code of Hammurabi of Code of Ur-Nammu. Ancient sentiments like the “eye for an eye” retaliation principle remain, and most punishments involve gruesome execution. Regardless, the Twelve Tables show how a society like Rome can grow and develop civilized and codified expectations of citizens, and how this was required for the civilization to grow to a massive world superpower. It’s also worth noting that the laws are largely secular, illustrating the laws of many future successful societies, attempting to separate potentially controversial and subjective religious politics from a more defined and objective system of right and wrong.(3) The original Twelve Tables were destroyed when Rome was sacked by Gaul around 390 BCE, but the laws have been mentioned and repeated throughout history, and a replica currently exists in the Museum of Roman Civilization.

Current replication of the Twelve Tables, located in the Museum of Roman Civilization

The Roman Republic, fortified by codified laws, existed for centuries. In 100 BCE, (potentially the most) famous Roman figure, Julius Caesar, was born. By 59 BCE, Caesar formed a political alliance with general Crassus and Roman leader, Pompey the Great. This alliance, known as the First Triumvirate, quickly fell after Caesar utilized his tactical skills to conquer Gaul. With these resources, Caesar built up his military up to such a strength that his allies were jealous.(4) As a result, a civil war was waged between Caesar and Pompey. Pompey had the strength of the Senate and their army, but Caesar won the battle using his impressive force.(5) Caesar took on a position of dictatorship over Rome, and led them through political negotiations with other enemies and allies before the Senate plotted to kill him in 44 BCE, as was illustrated in Shakespeare’s recounting of his life. Off of Julius, his nephew and adopted son, Octavian (who later took on his name as a title to become Caesar Augustus) became the first emperor of the Roman Empire.(6) Julius Caesar’s shift in the political structure of Rome caused years of military domination under a variety of competent and incompetent leaders, removing many of the complications that came with electing leaders in the republic. While most relics that portray the rule or power of leaders have been destroyed, there’s one known statue of Julius Caesar that was built in his lifetime: the Tusculum portrait. Dated to the latter years of Caesar’s rule, the bust includes similar features to those of coins illustrating him at the time.(7) After being found by Lucien Bonaparte, the statue was displayed in the Louvre, before being replicated and kept in a variety of private collections.(8) This portrait represents the political power and influence of Julius Caesar, as well as the distinctive, realistic artstyle of the Romans at the time of its conception. All in all, the Tusculum portrait is a snapshot of how rulers were heralded among Roman citizens, and the pivotal changes that Caesar brought to the civilization.

The Tusculum Portrait

Following the transformation from a republic into an empire, Roman life improved as the empire dominated during the beginning of the Common Era. With a strong military and expendable resources, the civilization could place more emphasis on its cultural aspects, such as art, architecture, and sport. In 72 CE, Emperor Vespasian established plans to build a large arena initially named the Flavian Amphitheatre. The building was finished in 80 CE by his son, Titus. The arena has stood the test of time, with its 80 arched entrances and 45 metre tall exterior still existing (albeit partially damaged), over twenty centuries down the line.(9) The Colosseum’s original intent was to host gladiator battles, where bodies would fall on the blood red sand through the means of swords, lances, and tridents. Gladiator fights weren’t the only contests, as other spectator events focused on hunting dangerous animals (like wild cats, bears or bulls) or killing defenseless animals (deer, ostriches, etc.) occurred daily. This intense violence and bloodshed would be mostly done away with in 404 CE after the rise of Christianity changed the morals of Roman citizens.(10) Beyond the depiction of change in daily life and entertainment for the Romans, the Colosseum is also a monument to the legacy of Roman architecture. Similarities to Greek architecture are present in beam-topped columns that the structure is composed of, but the arches included are distinctly Roman.(11)

The Roman Colosseum

The Roman architectural design philosophy is further exhibited in the Arch of Constantine, located nearby the Colosseum and built in 312 CE to commemorate Constantine the Great taking over the Western Roman Empire. Quite obviously containing arches, given its namesake, the structure portrays Roman art in the reliefs displayed on its side and foreshadows the power of Constantine: specifically, the changes he brought through the decriminalization of Christianity.(12) In the structural makeup of the Colosseum and the Arch of Constantine, we see more of Rome’s legacy form. This outlines the fortification of Rome’s culture through its strength and success.

The three artifacts of the Twelve Tables, the Tusculum portrait and the Colosseum, though deteriorated over time, represent critical developments in the history of Rome. Showing key aspects of law and social class, politics and art, and architecture and daily life, respectively, the archaeological discoveries made over the years following the decline of the ancient Roman civilization point to how an ancient society flourished in its time. With this knowledge, we can look back on the past and plot for the future through the direction we came from and the direction we must go.

 

Footnotes

(1) Kreis, Steven. “The Laws of the Twelve Tables, c.450 B.C.” The History Guide. Last modified 2001. http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/12tables.html.

(2) Adams, John P. “The Twelve Tables.” California State University, Northridge. Last modified June 10, 2009. https://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/12tables.html.

(3) Cartwright, Mark. “Twelve Tables.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified April 11, 2016. https://www.ancient.eu/Twelve_Tables/.

(4) Biography. “Julius Caesar.” Biography.com. Accessed April 19, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/julius-caesar-9192504.

(5) Advameg, Inc. “Julius Caesar Biography.” Notable Biographies. Last modified 2018. http://www.notablebiographies.com/Br-Ca/Caesar-Julius.html.

(6) Grant, Michael. “Augustus.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 13, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Augustus-Roman-emperor.

(7) Slawth Staff. “The Tusculum Portrait.” Slawth. Last modified August 12, 2017. https://www.slawth.com/2017/08/12/the-tusculum-portrait/.

(8) Wikipedia contributors, “Tusculum portrait,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tusculum_portrait&oldid=825546471

(9) Rome.info. “Roman Colosseum.” Rome.info. Last modified 2003. https://www.rome.info/colosseum/.

(10) Cartwright, Mark. “Colosseum.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified November 6, 2012. https://www.ancient.eu/Colosseum/.

(11) Hopkins, Keith. “The Colosseum: Emblem of Rome.” BBC. Last modified March 22, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colosseum_01.shtml.

(12) Findley, Andrew. “Arch of Constantine.” Khan Academy. Last modified November 25, 2105. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/late-empire/a/arch-of-constantine.

 

Bibliography

Adams, John P. “The Twelve Tables.” California State University, Northridge. Last modified June 10, 2009. https://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/12tables.html.

Advameg, Inc. “Julius Caesar Biography.” Notable Biographies. Last modified 2018. http://www.notablebiographies.com/Br-Ca/Caesar-Julius.html.

Biography. “Julius Caesar.” Biography.com. Accessed April 19, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/julius-caesar-9192504.

Cartwright, Mark. “Colosseum.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified November 6, 2012. https://www.ancient.eu/Colosseum/.

Cartwright, Mark. “Twelve Tables.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified April 11, 2016. https://www.ancient.eu/Twelve_Tables/.

Findley, Andrew. “Arch of Constantine.” Khan Academy. Last modified November 25, 2105. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/late-empire/a/arch-of-constantine.

Grant, Michael. “Augustus.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 13, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Augustus-Roman-emperor.

Hopkins, Keith. “The Colosseum: Emblem of Rome.” BBC. Last modified March 22, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colosseum_01.shtml.

Kreis, Steven. “The Laws of the Twelve Tables, c.450 B.C.” The History Guide. Last modified 2001. http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/12tables.html.

Layers of Rome UTEP. “Arch of Constantine with Dr. Ronald Weber (NEH).” YouTube. April 16, 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPz7NY2ruf4.

“MrJennings”. “Twelve Tables: All.” flickr. 2005. https://www.flickr.com/photos/mrjennings/62005017/in/album-1352195/.

Poupeau, Gautier. “Exposition au Grand Palais “Moi, Auguste, empereur de Rome”.” Wiki Commons. 2014. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:C%C3%A9sar_(13667960455).jpg.

Rome.info. “Roman Colosseum.” Rome.info. Last modified 2003. https://www.rome.info/colosseum/.

Slawth Staff. “The Tusculum Portrait.” Slawth. Last modified August 12, 2017. https://www.slawth.com/2017/08/12/the-tusculum-portrait/.

“trialsanderrors”. “The Colosseum, Rome, Italy.” Wiki Commons. 1986. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_%E2%80%A6trialsanderrors_-_The_Colosseum,_Rome,_Italy,_ca._1896.jpg.

“Twelve Tables Engraving.” Wiki Commons. 2014. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Twelve_Tables_Engraving.jpg.

Wikipedia contributors, “Tusculum portrait,” Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tusculum_portrait&oldid=825546471

Aqueduct-Related Diary Entry from the Roman Kingdom Found

So, this document was recently discovered. It was written in 311 BCE, and appears to offer some new insight into how citizens felt about the rise of the aqueduct.

[Discovered, translated and paraphrased by Stefan Blacha, 2018.]

Diary of (The Impressive, Talented, and (of course) Modest) Tatius Marcellus,

Junius XVII, CCCXI

Today, I have become aware of a new venture of the government, creating a system called the “aqueduct,” intended to replicate the flow of rivers and other bodies of water in delivering The Liquid of Life to the masses. As I retain no interest in the work of farmers, this initially seemed to be a pointless appeal to the plebians, and a demented idea to begin with. How, questioned I, would the transportation of water to higher ground be possible, as liquid always drops down to the Earth? I also considered the cleanliness of such a system. How would the government manage to manufacture a system that transports water, maintains its safety, and distributes it fairly to plebians? As I learned more about this new system, I realized that, not only would plebians benefit, but elite classes as well, given the use of the water in more than just farming situations, into mining operations, public baths, and other such circumstances. With this in mind, I warmed to the idea slightly. While this now seems beneficial for me on some level, still questions still remain: how will this be regulated between the classes above and below me, and how will the government ensure clean water? These questions, too, were answered. The usage of these “aqueducts,” will be regulated through a fee (which I concur, is quite a fitting method for keeping the water to those who deserve it), and the water will be safe through its movement. As history has shown, stagnant water seems ripe for danger and disease, which especially kills off the lower classes (who we still need, given their food production). The supposed plan for these aqueducts is for an intricate, underground system of tunnels to funnel the water down, reaching enough momentum to scale, or move around, potential obstacles. The government has also announced plans to construct bridges in order to transport this water across valleys, as to allow citizens across Rome access to the aqueducts.

Whilst I still stay skeptical, we may as well take a chance to ensure water superior to the disgusting groundwater that has run amok. Still, the potential of this government’s plan working as intended seems slim, given the complex mathematics required to achieve such a feat. This looks even more bleak, considering Rome’s recent military failures against the Samnite army, which have broken down morale considerably. Surely, this is a political tactic by our kingdom to boost this morale with the promise of luxury. As the first aqueduct is apparently under production, I must say that time will tell whether or not this venture succeeds, though it seems unlikely and filled with potential issues. Consider (The Great) Tatius Marcellus a skeptic, as I cannot envision a future of the “aqueduct” supporting a society of patricians and imbeciles alike. If the government can maintain these new water tunnels, this would be fairly impressive, but I very much doubt this.

Nevertheless, this illustration I collected shows the plan for the “aqueduct.” One must think this is fairly excessive.

[End of translation]

Pretty interesting, huh?

 

Rodà, Isabel. “Aqueducts: Quenching Rome’s Thirst.” National Geographic. Last modified November 15, 2016. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2016/11-12/roman-aqueducts-engineering-innovation/.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Aqueduct.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified April 3, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/technology/aqueduct-engineering.

The Fall of the Roman Empire: Three Artifacts

Rome spent many years as a successful civilization, but this success diminished as a variety of factors wore the society down over time. Among these factors include religious and cultural shift in the division of the empire, poor leadership, and external attacks to the empire in its downfall. These factors can be represented respectively by the existing artifacts of the Roman Pantheon, The Sack of Rome by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre, and the tremissis of Romulus Augustus.

The Roman Pantheon started construction in 118 CE, originally built as a tribute to the gods in the Greco-Roman religion that was largely practiced at the time. This was built by emperor Hadrian in order to replace the previous Pantheon.(1) While we don’t know how it was exactly used, other than for general worship, the structure still holds up today. Despite its similar condition, the original purpose of the Pantheon was not what it was later used for, as religion and politics separated the empire greatly by the late third century, and the Pantheon ended up repurposed. As the Western half of the Roman Empire continued its old religious observance, the Eastern Roman Empire recognized Christianity as its official religion. After the Western empire fell and the Eastern empire became the Byzantine Empire, the Pantheon was changed from a Greco-Roman religious temple into a Catholic Christian church. This shows that the physical similarity of the Pantheon throughout its history is not necessarily indicative of its overall use and cultural impact. The switch from Roman mythological religion into Christianity represents how this element divided the two halves of the empire, thus portraying this important historical shift (and cause for the decline of the empire) in the context of a cultural icon such as the Pantheon. The Pantheon didn’t become a Christian institution for many years, instead gradually changing as the tides of culture and society shifted into the other religion. Division between halves of the empire was partially impacted by this religious shift, and this division was only one of many factors that led to the gradual fall of the empire.

Image of the Roman Pantheon from the front, circa 2006 (Dragan)

The empire, now divided into east and west, was essentially split into separate empires now, and they each faced their own problems: the west receiving the brunt of conflict due to a smaller military. Alaric was the king of the barbarian Visigoths at the turn of the fifth century, and began sieges on Rome in order to be able to settle around the area. Alaric, growing frustrated, tried to make one last compromise with the Romans, where Rome would integrate the Visigoths into the military and give them payments, but Emperor Honorius decided against this.(2) As a result, on August 24, 410 CE, rebellious slaves let the Visigoths into the city of Rome, where citizens were beaten, killed and raped. Most monuments and buildings were left standing, and many treasures survived since the Visigoths were also Christian and respected the property. After the three-day rampage was completed, the Visigoths left and went to settle in southwest France. This event very significant in the fall of the Roman Empire, since it allowed barbarian tribes the confidence to engage in conquests or sacks of Roman cities. This was one of the worst conflicts in the Roman Empire’s history, and was the beginning in unearthing what used to be a behemoth of an empire. This three-day conquest was a turning point for the Western half of the empire, as it declined by the end of the century. The artifact I chose to represent the sack of Rome is Joseph-Noël Sylvestre’s painting, The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410. While this was painted over a millennium after the conflict, it, along with many other paintings of the event, portrays the conflict in a pivotal moment of history. I feel that the men stringing a noose around the statue’s neck and their “barbaric” nakedness is a solid metaphorical and literal representation of the decline of the Western empire to a point where a tribe like this could overtake them. The sack of Rome by the Visigoths was what set off a chain of events that led to the fall of the Western half of the empire.

The Sack of Rome by the Barbarians in 410 by Joseph-Noël Sylvestre (Public domain)

While the Eastern half of the empire continued on as the Byzantine Empire, the Western half fell after years of struggling under its counterpart and suffering from poor leadership. A prime example of the incompetent leadership of the Western Roman Empire is the last emperor: Romulus Augustus. Romulus was given the position of the emperor by his father, Orestes, when the previous emperor, Julius Nepos, was sent out. Orestes acted as the leader through his son, only giving Romulus the position of a figurehead who didn’t represent anything other than his father’s hunger for power.(3) After ten months of Romulus’s illegitimate rule of the Western Roman Empire, Odoacer, the leader of a Germanic tribe, stormed Rome in order to execute Orestes and remove Romulus from the position of Emperor in 476 CE.

A depiction of Romulus surrendering his crown to Odoacer (Public domain)

The tremissis, produced for every Roman emperor, is a gold coin that was created for currency and recognizing the power and rule of the emperor depicted.(4) The artifact that represents the incompetent ruling at the end of the Western empire’s history is Romulus’s tremissis. This factor in the fall of the Western empire occurred quite suddenly, as Romulus spent less than ten months in his position. This showed how far the Empire had fallen in terms of corruption, and change in how abruptly the chain of Western emperors stopped. While we still have coins depicting each emperor left today as artifacts, the political system of the empire was done away with later on, as the fall of the Western empire marked the start of the Middle Ages.

Romulus’s tremissis (Public domain)

 

Footnotes:
(1) “Roman Pantheon.” Rome.info. Accessed March 30, 2018. https://www.rome.info/pantheon/.
(2) Kerrigan, Michael. “Sack of Rome.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Last modified March 27, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-410.
(3) “On This Day In History: Emperor Romulus Augustus Deposed.” Ancient Pages. Last modified September 4, 2016. http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/09/04/on-this-day-in-history-emperor-romulus-augustus-deposed-on-september-4-476/.
(4) “Definition of Tremissis.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Accessed March 30, 2018. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tremissis.

 

Bibliography:

“Definition of Tremissis.” Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Accessed March 30, 2018. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/tremissis.

Dragan, Roberta. “Pantheon (Rome) – Front.” Wikimedia Commons. 2006. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rome_Pantheon_front.jpg.

Kerrigan, Michael. “Sack of Rome.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Last modified March 27, 2017. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-410.

Mark, Joshua J. “Western Roman Empire.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified December 1, 2011. https://www.ancient.eu/Western_Roman_Empire/.

“On This Day In History: Emperor Romulus Augustus Deposed.” Ancient Pages. Last modified September 4, 2016. http://www.ancientpages.com/2016/09/04/on-this-day-in-history-emperor-romulus-augustus-deposed-on-september-4-476/.

“Roman Pantheon.” Rome.info. Accessed March 30, 2018. https://www.rome.info/pantheon/.

Environmental and Social Decline in Ancient Rome

As Rome expanded further and further in the rule of Emperor Trajan, environmental missteps by this massive empire were factors that led to its eventually instability and decline. While the climate was locked as fairly humid and warm in the early days of the Roman Empire, the climate changed quite a bit towards the end.

Scattered ruins of Ancient Rome

Deforestation, in order to produce wood for building, clearing land for farming and urbanizing for trade, caused the soil to become eroded and infertile, and the temperature to lower. To serve a booming population and economy, the Romans sacrificed key areas of their environment.

However, while some argue that the Romans were never aware of the consequences for cutting down trees, conservation methods were eventually instated (though as the environment was already declining). In addition, writings from Plato and Cicero acknowledge the erosion and complacency of humans in taking advantage of the environment.

Statues of Plato (left) and Cicero (right)

Most notably of all, Ancient Rome experienced the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, which slaughtered the city of Pompeii. This natural disaster is estimated to be one of the largest volcanic eruptions in human history, killing 16,000 and spewing ash over nearby land.

One of the many victims of the eruption Mount Vesuvius frozen in time under ash

While these climate impacts were likely not the most important factor in the Roman Empire’s decline, we can still see some early effects of deforestation in a large civilization. This is similar to deforestation today, and marks the importance of our modern society’s opposition to it. However, while climate in Rome shifted a bit, our society has a much larger danger, with the rise of carbon emissions and still common production of unrenewable, inefficient resources. Luckily, our world is changing, and we might be able to turn some of this change around by learning from the complacency of civilizations before us and the data that we have now. While we still have volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis in our world today, our technological and medical improvements have equipped us to respond to them much easier and create more preventative measures.

In conclusion, not much has changed in how climate declines, but this process has sped up over time as we’ve invented more and more environmentally damaging technology.

 

“Frozen in Time: Casts of Pompeii Reveal Last Moments of Volcano Victims.” Ancient Origins. Last modified May 25, 2015. http://www.ancient-origins.net/news-history-archaeology/frozen-time-casts-pompeii-reveal-last-moments-volcano-victims-003117.

Haralampopoulos, Maria. “Plato’s Ecologically Cautionary Words.” New Greek TV | The Greek Channel of New York. Last modified October 6, 2013. http://www.newgreektv.com/english-news/item/998-plato-s-ecologically-cautionary-words.

“The Ancient Roman Empire and Natural Disasters.” Ancient Rome. Last modified May 15, 2017. https://ancientromedotcom.wordpress.com/2017/05/15/the-ancient-roman-empire-and-natural-disasters/.

Zielinski, Sarah. “Climate and the Fall of the Roman Empire.” Smithsonian. Last modified January 18, 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/climate-and-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire-42171285/.

The Decline of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire started to break apart due to social factors that arose in such a big civilization. Near the beginning of fourth century CE, Constantine the Great rose to power within Rome under belief of the Christian God. While Rome traditionally viewed its Emperor as a god, Constantine’s proclamation of belief in Christianity split apart the eastern areas of the empire from the west, as the monotheism of Christianity clashed with the polytheistic Roman religion. Constantine situated his capital of Constantinople within the eastern area of the Empire, furthering the disconnection between regions. This splintering of the Empire eventually caused the west of the Roman Empire to fall, and for the east to transform into the Byzantine Empire. These social factors of religious and cultural conflict weren’t the only factor in the decline of the Empire, but they sped up other political and economic issues into taking effect over a weakened society.

 

A split Roman Empire during the time of Constantine’s rule

Nicol, Donald M., and J. F. Matthews. “Constantine I.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified February 8, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Constantine-I-Roman-emperor.

“The Fall of the Roman Empire.” US History. Accessed March 14, 2018. http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp.

 

An Overview of Roman Religion

Ancient Roman religion was an adaptation of Greece’s polytheistic structure of gods and goddesses featuring in mythology. The characters that this religion centered around were largely anthropomorphic interpretations of emotions of phenomena who would watch over the civilization and exist through its population.

The deities were worshipped through the medium of telling their myths. Important gods and goddesses included the twins, Romulus and Remus, who founded Rome; Mars, the god of war; Neptune, the god of the sea; Pluto, the god of the underworld; Jupiter, the supreme ruler; Juno, Jupiter’s wife; and Minerva (from the name Athena), his daughter. There were also minor deities like Apollo, Diana, Venus, and Vulcan, who controlled lesser elements of society like cultural or occupational concerns.

 

A portrayal of Jupiter, who was the same character as Greek mythology’s Zeus.

 

Alongside the gods arose several cults who attempted to gain power in Rome. Bacchus, Cybele and the Imperial Cult (which was based around Augustus) all used fear of the gods to assert dominance over other people in ancient Rome as being modern personifications of the Roman religion.

Ultimately, the Roman religion lost relevance once Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity. The polytheistic Roman religion was then overtaken by the monotheistic Christian religion, and Christianity was the last major religion before the Roman Empire fell.

 

Wasson, Donald L. “Roman Religion.” Ancient History Encyclopedia. Last modified November 13, 2013. https://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Religion/.

How Did the Roman Empire Expand?

 

Depiction of the Gallic Wars

 

The former small city-state of Rome fought off the Etruscans and later transitioned from a republic into a massive superpower of an empire when Julius Caesar, Emperor Augustus, and Emperor Trajan conquered surrounding civilizations. General Julius Caesar made Rome into an empire and was heavily enticed by the economic benefits of expansion. Between 58 and 50 BCE, Caesar embarked on numerous conquests, utilizing expertise in ruthless military tactics and taking over Gaul in the Gallic Wars. Caesar, in fear of being killed, took on his great-nephew, Augustus (First known as Octavian), as an apprentice. Becoming Rome’s first emperor following the death of the dictator Julius, Augustus hungered for power as he sought ultimate control over the Roman people. This inspired Augustus to carry on in conquering neighbouring nations, winning the Battle of Actium to take Egypt, then sections of Spain, central Europe, and Britain by 43 CE. Augustus brought in a new, prosperous era for the Roman Empire with the power that he fought for. Following Augustus, Emperor Trajan attained power in 98 CE. Trajan conquered the large nations Dacia and the Parthian Empire before dying in battle in 117 CE. In the preceding and subsequent years of the Roman Empire, no other leader obtained as much land as Trajan. While the dominance of the Roman Empire was long and complex, some of the greatest expansions made were those influenced by the financial, prestigious and territorial desires of the respective leaders of Julius, Augustus and Trajan.

 

The Roman Empire following Trajan’s rule

 

Devillier Donegan Enterprises. “The Roman Empire: in the First Century. The Roman Empire. Emperors. Emperors.” PBS: Public Broadcasting Service. Last modified 2006. http://www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/emperors.html.

“Julius Caesar’s Gallic Wars – Pars II.” Rome Across Europe. Last modified October 13, 2015. http://www.romeacrosseurope.com/?p=3101#sthash.8Aoc9eUd.dpbs.

Ricketts, Colin. “The Growth of the Roman Empire Explained.” Made From History. Last modified March 31, 2015. http://madefrom.com/history/antiquity/growth-roman-empire-explained/.

Tataryn77. “Roman Empire Trajan 117AD.” Wikimedia Commons. Last modified April 5, 2015. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_Trajan_117AD-pt.svg.

Careers in Archaeology

Personally, I can’t say that archaeology is a field that I would specifically want to get into. While I’m interested in the social sciences and I intend to work within its array of careers, archaeology is more of a “hands-on” job than I’d want. I think I would enjoy being part of the uncovering of important historical past, but I don’t think this would be enough to sustain me in the job.

If I was an archaeologist, I think I’d choose the Romans or the Aztecs. While the former is obvious given this blog and my interest in their military and political history, the culture and tradition of the Aztecs in my continent of North America would entice me to study them as an archaeologist.

A decade ago, archaeologists investigating a bathing area within the remains of an ancient Roman civilization discovered the head of a marble statue of a figure likely representing Zeus. The head of Zeus points to the mythology closely tied to Roman culture and ancient explanations of the world, where the supernatural prevailed over scientific understanding. The fact that discoveries such as this statue head are still being found shows that archaeology is still a relevant field of study.

 

Pomeroy, Robin. “Dig reveals “billionaire’s” Roman villa with baths.” Reuters. Last modified July 24, 2007. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-villa/dig-reveals-billionaires-roman-villa-with-baths-idUSL2476764920070724.

Three Roman Artifacts Critical to Early and Contemporary Society

As we look back upon the events of history, the sheer amount of events, people and stories can clutter up important developments. With this in mind, it’s important to view the past through the filter of historical significance, where we must assess people, events and inventions on the basis of their impact on then and now. Today, we’ll take a look at a few of the useful inventions integral to the advanced ancient Roman civilization. Out of the many creations of this society, none were quite as key to the development of humanity as the creation of bound books, the newspaper, and modern concrete.

1. Bound Books

Example of old bound books using the technique of the Romans

As opposed to the cuneiform tablets of the Sumerians, or the scrolls later made by the Egyptians, the Romans bound their writings in animal skins or wax tablets. This form of book was originally called a codex by the Romans, meaning “block of wood”. The codex was the very first example of pages being bound in this efficient manner. Bound books made the medium a lot more accessible and durable, which allowed knowledge to be much easier to attain. In other words, this form of book revolutionized the ability to create lasting writings and significantly helped the Romans in the passing of culture. This invention didn’t only affect the Romans in the transfer of their knowledge and culture, but binding pages became the new standard for books. This invention is incredibly widespread, as books are still used today. This is also an early example of how ancient civilizations thrived through transferring knowledge to the following generations, as this allowed said progress to continue and grow. The binding of books just gave Rome the most efficient method of creating easily readable text for this purpose. From Rome’s use of binding as a medium for the notebooks of Caesar, the biblical writings later on, or the use of books in the future, this method of passing down information left an impact on the world.

 

2. The Newspaper

Ancient Roman writings used to describe current events

The Romans also made the first iteration of the newspaper, called the Acta Diurna. This artifact was made out of carved stone or metal or written on papyrus. This can be considered the first type of newspaper, as it was filled with news and posted in public places. The Acta Dinura dates back to at least before 60 BCE, where it was utilized to inform people of daily events in Roman society. Due to this document being posted regularly, people became more informed and knowledgeable about the society they lived in. This may not be as notable as the creation of bound books, but it’s also notable as a tool for the transfer of information. Not just Romans were affected, as this was just the first newspaper, and newspapers have persisted throughout history. It’s safe to say that most people since have felt the effects of this artifact given its longevity. The Roman creation of the newspaper acts as another demonstration of the public’s need to know or be involved in the control of the civilization (the latter seen later as a push for democratic political structure). An instance of this curiosity in relation to the newspaper is the fact that the Acta Dinura was in rather high demand. For example, the rich would send scribes into Rome to pick up the latest edition. its importance existed in being another form of connection between the people and their government, as well as another tool for educating the masses.

 

3. Modern Concrete

In 2nd century BCE, the Romans figured out how to make their own concrete (called opus caementicium in Latin) and apply it to architecture for long-lasting and impressive structures. This caused the Roman Architectural Revolution, where the civilization built structures such as the Pantheon. The inclusion of volcanic ash in the production of the concrete made it especially sturdy, resulting in buildings that still stand today. The changes and uses of concrete as administered by the Romans proved that it was a sturdy and reliable building material. They essentially made concrete mandatory in the building of structures, developing many long-lasting cultural icons with this artifact. This is still widely used today, and the structures of the Romans are still standing today, 2,000 years on. Roman concrete is just an early example of effective mixtures and usage which later led to much more development through architecture. The realizations about and use of concrete by ancient Roman people in the building of their historical structures demonstrates what people could do with the resources and skills at their disposal. Once the basic needs of a civilization were met, they could go on to contribute in cultural outlets, such as these massive buildings.

Here’s a video on a technique that the Romans used to reinforce their concrete:

 

Bibliography:

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The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. “Acta | Ancient Roman Publication.” Encyclopedia Britannica. March 3, 2015. Accessed February 23, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Acta.

Murphy, Tom VII. “Old book bindings.” Wikipedia. 2005. Accessed February 23, 2018. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Old_book_bindings.jpg

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Pruitt, Sarah. “The Secrets of Ancient Roman Concrete.” HISTORY.com. June 21, 2013. Accessed February 23, 2018. http://www.history.com/news/the-secrets-of-ancient-roman-concrete.

“Roman Architecture: Characteristics, Building Techniques.” Visual Arts Encyclopedia. Accessed February 23, 2018. http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/roman.htm.

TIME. “Scientists Have Figured Out How Ancient Rome’s Concrete Structures Have Survived 2,000 Years | TIME.” YouTube. July 6, 2017. Accessed February 23, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tR-c3YSuYjE.

Wal, Michel. “Roman writing tablets.” Wiki Commons. 2007. Accessed February 23, 2018.  https://media.pri.org/s3fs-public/styles/story_main/public/story/images/12841143325_e2a0d1b374_z.jpg?itok=x8CxbNlm.

ḎḤWTY. “Acta Diurna: The Telegraph of Ancient Rome, Bringing You All the Latest Gladiator Combat News.” Ancient Origins. December 23, 2017. Accessed February 23, 2018. http://www.ancient-origins.net/artifacts-ancient-writings/acta-diurna-telegraph-ancient-rome-bringing-you-all-latest-gladiator-021770.